Revisiting the Eclectic Theory of the Choice of International Entry Mode

Theoretical Issues on Marketing UIBE PhD Program Juan Pablo Dominguez Fall 2012 Final Examination for Theoretical Issues of Marketing (Doctoral Course) Nov. 28, 2012 Essay questions for â€Å" An Eclectic Theory of Choice of International Entry Mode † 1. What are the major variables that affect the decision of entry mode? Should they be weighted equally? Why yes or why no? 2. Given that different variables may pull the MNC in the different directions, what approach is suggested by the authors? 3. What theories have been taken as the basis for conceptualization? 4.Considering the nine propositions, do they all make sense to you? In case you find any fault with them, state it with your arguments. 5. Review the methodology adopted by this paper and make your comment on its appropriateness. 6. Discuss briefly what contributions this thesis has made to the theory of international entry mode choice. 7. What do you think of the limitation of this thesis? Revisiting the Eclectic Theor y of the Choice of International Entry Mode During the internationalization process of a company, the decision of entry mode to a particular market is determined by a set of different considerations.The paper â€Å"An Eclectic Theory of Choice of International Entry mode† is a theoretical approach to answer the questions of which factors are relevant and which are not. It reflects on how contemporary studies (particularly, Transaction Cost Theory) had a limited view of the problem by not including a globalstrategy factor in the analysis, therefore the authors try to advance the discussion by enriching the construct of additional variables that were disregarded by economical orthodoxy at the moment. This short paper is aimed to introduce in part the aforementioned document and present more recent findings in the topic.In that fashion I have divided the paper into 4 main parts besides this short introduction. The first section is a brief literature review of the theoretical bac kground behind the understanding of entry mode in the internationalization process given that the paper was published more than two decades ago. The second section aims at synthesizing the main propositions of the paper and what I consider its limitations and contributions. The third section displays empirical evidence that aimed to negate or confirm the different propositions of the authors and finally, the fourth and last section is a set of concluding remarks. Literary reviewThere is no short list about existing research regarding the internationalization process of MNEs?. When focusing on the entry mode (or ownership strategies), one can begin to see that there are three different streams of thought: one stream of research has often framed such a choice as determined by the need for control to minimize transaction costs arising from asset specificity and potential partner opportunism (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986; Williamson, 1985). According to transaction costs theory, for invest ments characterized by high asset specificity, integrated ownership structures, such as whole owned subsidiaries (WOSs), should be sed to enhance MNEs? strategic and operational control over the assets (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986) and to protect MNEs from the risk of knowledge dissemination to their partners (Davidson & McFetridge, 1985; Hill, Hwang, & Kim, 1990). Thus, transaction costs theory advocates the use of ex ante control mechanisms to minimize transaction costs arising from asset specificity and potential partner opportunism (Williamson, 1985). Another stream of research has suggested that the institutional environment shapes such a choice and proposed that MNEs may exchange ownership for legitimacy in the host country (Chan & Makino, 2007; Yiu & Makino, 2002).When foreign ownership is not prevalent or well accepted in the host country industry, MNEs can partner with local firms or keep the ownership level lower (Chan & Makino, 2007). By doing so, MNEs can show the local co mmunities that their activities are not ethnocentric or harmful to local firms, and they also obtain the local identity and legitimacy to acquire the resources that they need in the local environment (Xu & Shenkar, 2002). On the other hand, when FDI is well accepted in the local market, MNEs can pursue integrated ownership structures and high equity shares.Choice of an ownership structure thus does not necessarily reflect MNEs? deliberate efforts to economize on transaction costs for an efficient governance mechanism but may rather be a response to pressures from the institutional environment (Yiu & Makino, 2002). The third stream is as in the case of Hill et al. which posits that in addition to control and legitimacy, MNE ownership strategy is also fundamentally concerned with the choice between flexibility and commitment (Buckley & Casson, 1998; Chi & McGuire, 1996; Kouvelis, Axarloglou, & Sinha, 2001). More recent papers have taken again the same question.Li & Li in 2010 resuscit ated the topic and made a contribution by not only providing a theoretical background proposing similar hypothesis as in the case of Hill, Hwang and Kim in 1990 but also by analyzing the ownership structure and equity shares of over 5,000 new foreign investments in manufacturing industries in China during 2000 to 2006. Explaining the contents of the paper is outside of the objectives of this short essay, but the Li & Li? s took Hill et al style of theoretical constructions one step further and provided stronger empirical evidence (outside the realm of mall sample surveys) that supports the logic behind such framework. Empirical tests of MNEs' initial entry modes are rather limited, even though existing theoretical research has elaborated on the options features of JVs compared with other investment modes (Buckley & Casson, 1998; Chi, 2000; Lee, 2004; Pennings & Sleuwaegen, 2004). Cuypers and Martin (2010) observed that foreign investors are inclined to take a smaller equity share in a JV when they face strong exogenous uncertainty (e. g. , exchange rate uncertainty) rather than endogenous uncertainty (e. . , cultural uncertainty). Brouthers et al. (2008) showed that, in choosing international entry modes, MNEs tend to adopt JVs (over WOSs) under high demand uncertainty. Synthesis What are the major variables that affect the decision of entry mode? Given that different authors have considered variables like country risk, country familiarity, country development stage, technology, and transaction costs, Hill et al. begin their work with a vision to unify the framework and analyze how different factors affect the decision.The first attempt to create a unified framework was carried out by Anderson and Gatignon in 1986 through the use of transaction cost theory. I believe that the authors see the shortcoming of this initial unified proposal in the Ceteris Paribus assumption of Economics that is used only as a theoretical tool to analyze relations among events or va riables. Any theory that treats related events in isolation will be insufficient and that? s why the authors propose the strategic relationship as another vital element of the decision.Their proposal includes the following factors: !†#$%   ! â€Å"#$! ,! = ! (! â€Å"#$%†&, ! â€Å"#$%&'†   ! â€Å"##$%#&'%, ! â€Å"##$%†&'(â€Å")&   ! â€Å"#$#) Should they be weighted equally? Why yes or why no? Different factors in the decision often suggest different entry modes, it is according to the particular weights each company puts in this factors that the final choice of entry is done. In other words, when deciding entry mode different factors have different weights and according to each company’s strategic considerations, such weights will have different magnitudes.Given that different variables may pull the MNC in the different directions, what approach is suggested by the authors? The authors suggest that instead of focusing in a single var iable, the company will have a set of strategic constraints that will limit their decision options. They focus their attention on how much control the company wants, according to the resource commitment they will provide and taking into consideration the dissemination risks of their knowhow. This can be formulated as the following: ! â€Å"#$%   ! â€Å"#$! ,! = ! !†#$%†&, ! #$%&'†   ! â€Å"##$%#&'%, ! â€Å"##$%†&'(â€Å")&   ! â€Å"#$# !†#$†%&'(   ! â€Å"#$†%&'( = ! !†#$%! â€Å"&   ! â€Å"##$%$&'$(, ! â€Å"#$%   ! †   ! â€Å"#$#%&! ‘, ! â€Å"#$%†   ! â€Å"#! $%&'%(â€Å"# !†#$%&†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ(â€Å")*+   ! â€Å"#$†%&'( = ! !†#$%&'   ! â€Å"#$, ! â€Å"#$%&†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ   ! â€Å"#$%$†&$'(, ! â€Å"#$%! !†#$%&%†#', ! â€Å"#$%&#&%'   ! †   ! â€Å"#$%&'&'†( !†#$%#&'()$   ! â€Å"#! â€Å"#$%& = ! (! à ¢â‚¬Å"#$%   ! †   ! â€Å"#$ ? !†#$%&%$   ! â€Å"#$ ? ?! â€Å", ! â€Å"#$! !†#$%&   ! †   ! â€Å"#$ ? ?! â€Å") These factors come from previous research and theoretical constructs. One important analysis that needs to be done is how these factors correlate to each other.One factor that I? m not sure if it? s included in any of these variables is regulation. For example, many automobile giants in the world wanted to enter the Chinese market as WOSs but because of regulation they are forced to enter as JVs. This makes me believe that there is an unspoken assumption that the markets the authors were conceiving in their constructs were open markets with little participation of the government (maybe they include it with country risk? ). What theories have been taken as the basis for conceptualization? This heoretical construct is a criticism to the Transaction Cost analysis to the entry mode decision, but in the words of Hwan, the theoretical heritage of the Eclectic Theory can be traced in part to the seminal work of Perlmutter [1969], which acknowledged the increasing existence of geocentric approaches to multinational management. The geocentric approach outlined by Perlmutter provided a succinct explanation for the existence of and benefits attached to managing subsidiary units not as a portfolio of independent units but as an interdependent network.Another foundation, upon which their argument rests, is the rich body of literature on global strategy (e. g. , Hout, Porter and Rudden [1982]; Hamel and Prahalad [1985]; Kogut [1985a, 1985b]; Kim and Mauborgne [1988]; Yip, [1989]), which has either explicitly or implicitly built upon Perlmutter's geocentric conception. I believe that the biggest theoretical difference from this global-strategy construct and classical economics theory within the entry mode decision is that the overriding objective is overall corporate success, not the maximization of each individual subsi diary unit's efficiency.The second is that in achieving this objective, interdependencies across subsidiary units must be actively managed, meaning that sometimes it would mean that in order to maintain global strategy, some SBUs might even be required to operate at a loss (which is a rationale outside the boundaries of traditional economics). Considering the nine propositions, do they all make sense to you? In case you find any fault with them, state it with your arguments. The first thing I noticed is why are they called propositions instead of Hypothesis? Any theory is based in hypothesis because its aim is to provide chances for something to be proved or not.The second thing I notices is that the propositions are not â€Å"symmetrical†. By this I mean that when you make such kind of propositions, in order to fully understand the relationship of the explanatory variables with the dependent variable, the author must not only look at one side of the coin but at both. For exa mple, Proposition 1: Other things being equal, firms that pursue a multi-domestic strategy will favor lowcontrol entry modes. That is one side of the coin, the other side would be: Other things being equal, firms that do not pursue multi-domestic strategy will not favor low-control entry modes.The value of such construct is that it gives a more robust base for empirical testing. Each proposition is set to analyze the validity of each factor within the whole unified framework, so its validity remains to be tested empirically. Review the methodology adopted by this paper and make your comment on its appropriateness. This paper is a theoretical construct based upon the works of others with the addition of new factors, it does not apply specific methodological tools for testing its validity. In terms of epistemological value, the theory is constructed in the same fashion as Falsificationism (Popper? ) would propose because the validity of the theory that was accepted previously was put into question by the authors and therefore they provided a new set of hypothesis that should accommodate more accurately to reality than Transaction Costs theory. To discuss the appropriateness of such construct without empirical evidence would be to begin an epistemological debate about the validity of theories and their validity into describing â€Å"Truth†. If it were me who wrote the paper I would have not done a theoretical construct without any experimental study about its validity. I believe that? why some of the authors (specifically Hwan) wrote another paper a couple of years later were with the use of surveys they tried to analyze the validity of such constructs. Methodologically speaking, I believe that is a much more fruitful contribution to science than providing list of propositions that may or may not be of use. Discuss briefly what contributions this thesis has made to the theory of international entry mode choice. The biggest contribution of this paper was th e search of different factors that could explain the decision of mode of entry for the internationalization process of a company.Previous studies at the moment had already identified a diversity of variables that influence the entry mode decision decision, and the authors grouped them into one of two categories: environmental or transaction specific factors. Furthermore, according to the theoretical constructs of the time, the studies of the factors had an underlying assumption that each entry decision is made in isolation and is driven essentially by efficiency considerations at the level of the individual entrant or subsidiary unit.This paper made a case directed towards establishing the importance of a third group of factors: global strategic, namely the strategic relationship it envisages between its operations across borders, in reaching its entry mode decision. For a business manager who is in such internationalization process, this theoretical construct can provide him a road map to which variables he/she should pay attention to in order to make the decision of entry.In my opinion, managers tend to first see how other companies enter the market in their initial stages and see if that would be a viable choice and such â€Å"contextual† approach is not included in the factors. What do you think of the limitation of this thesis? The biggest limitation of any theoretical construct is that it remains just a theory and not be applicable. That? s why I took it upon me to see if someone had tried to prove or deny the Eclectic Theory. The results of that search are shown in section three of this paper.Empirical evidence 2 years after the publication of Hill et al. Eclectic Theory, one of the co-writers, Peter Hwang along with W. Chan Kim published the paper: â€Å"Global Strategy and Multinationals? Entry Mode Choice†. The main objective of the paper was to provide empirical tests to the propositions made by the Eclectic Theory. They used a survey f rom ninety-six multinational managers and had a fundamental result that an express incorporation of global strategic variables into an analysis of the entry mode decision is warranted. DataThe survey was a mail questionnaire composed of four parts: modes of entry, global strategic factors, environmental factors, and transaction-specific factors. It was distributed to 629 U. S. based MNE, mostly from the manufacturing sector and targeted senior-level management. 137 questionnaires were returned (22% response rate), of which 41 were disregarded because of incomplete answers. Another 18 were disregarded because respondents provided a positive response to the control question of whether government regulations imposed restrictions on the mode options available.The respondents operations were geographically wide with 25 located in Asia Pacific, 17 in South America, 25 in Europe, 16 in North America, 4 in Africa and 9 in the Middle East. One big methodological problem to measure the validi ty of the propositions is that such variables are not easy to measure. This translates that the nine key variables recognized to influence the focal decision of foreign entry mode are linked to the empirical world only through indicators.Moreover, they appear to be wide-ranging, multifaced constructs. As such, psychometric measurement based on multiple items rather than a single-item proxy seemed a more fitting approach [Peter 1979; Fomnell 1982; Churchill 1979], and was used in the analyses. I personally believe that psychometric variables do not fully reflect the necessary information, but that is just because I am biased towards more robust statistical data and believe that what people think they know is not actually what they know.Continuing with the questionnaire, the respondents were asked to evaluate the foreign venture under discussion across each of these items on a 7-point Likert-type scale. After data collection, an iterative procedure was employed to refine the set of in dicators for each construct. The item-to-total correlation, i. e. , the correlation between the score of each indicator and the total score of those indicators used to capture each construct, was then examined. Following the steps suggested by Nunnally [1978], those indicators with a low correlation with the total score (i. e. , r Revisiting the Eclectic Theory of the Choice of International Entry Mode Theoretical Issues on Marketing UIBE PhD Program Juan Pablo Dominguez Fall 2012 Final Examination for Theoretical Issues of Marketing (Doctoral Course) Nov. 28, 2012 Essay questions for â€Å" An Eclectic Theory of Choice of International Entry Mode † 1. What are the major variables that affect the decision of entry mode? Should they be weighted equally? Why yes or why no? 2. Given that different variables may pull the MNC in the different directions, what approach is suggested by the authors? 3. What theories have been taken as the basis for conceptualization? 4.Considering the nine propositions, do they all make sense to you? In case you find any fault with them, state it with your arguments. 5. Review the methodology adopted by this paper and make your comment on its appropriateness. 6. Discuss briefly what contributions this thesis has made to the theory of international entry mode choice. 7. What do you think of the limitation of this thesis? Revisiting the Eclectic Theor y of the Choice of International Entry Mode During the internationalization process of a company, the decision of entry mode to a particular market is determined by a set of different considerations.The paper â€Å"An Eclectic Theory of Choice of International Entry mode† is a theoretical approach to answer the questions of which factors are relevant and which are not. It reflects on how contemporary studies (particularly, Transaction Cost Theory) had a limited view of the problem by not including a globalstrategy factor in the analysis, therefore the authors try to advance the discussion by enriching the construct of additional variables that were disregarded by economical orthodoxy at the moment. This short paper is aimed to introduce in part the aforementioned document and present more recent findings in the topic.In that fashion I have divided the paper into 4 main parts besides this short introduction. The first section is a brief literature review of the theoretical bac kground behind the understanding of entry mode in the internationalization process given that the paper was published more than two decades ago. The second section aims at synthesizing the main propositions of the paper and what I consider its limitations and contributions. The third section displays empirical evidence that aimed to negate or confirm the different propositions of the authors and finally, the fourth and last section is a set of concluding remarks. Literary reviewThere is no short list about existing research regarding the internationalization process of MNEs?. When focusing on the entry mode (or ownership strategies), one can begin to see that there are three different streams of thought: one stream of research has often framed such a choice as determined by the need for control to minimize transaction costs arising from asset specificity and potential partner opportunism (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986; Williamson, 1985). According to transaction costs theory, for invest ments characterized by high asset specificity, integrated ownership structures, such as whole owned subsidiaries (WOSs), should be sed to enhance MNEs? strategic and operational control over the assets (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986) and to protect MNEs from the risk of knowledge dissemination to their partners (Davidson & McFetridge, 1985; Hill, Hwang, & Kim, 1990). Thus, transaction costs theory advocates the use of ex ante control mechanisms to minimize transaction costs arising from asset specificity and potential partner opportunism (Williamson, 1985). Another stream of research has suggested that the institutional environment shapes such a choice and proposed that MNEs may exchange ownership for legitimacy in the host country (Chan & Makino, 2007; Yiu & Makino, 2002).When foreign ownership is not prevalent or well accepted in the host country industry, MNEs can partner with local firms or keep the ownership level lower (Chan & Makino, 2007). By doing so, MNEs can show the local co mmunities that their activities are not ethnocentric or harmful to local firms, and they also obtain the local identity and legitimacy to acquire the resources that they need in the local environment (Xu & Shenkar, 2002). On the other hand, when FDI is well accepted in the local market, MNEs can pursue integrated ownership structures and high equity shares.Choice of an ownership structure thus does not necessarily reflect MNEs? deliberate efforts to economize on transaction costs for an efficient governance mechanism but may rather be a response to pressures from the institutional environment (Yiu & Makino, 2002). The third stream is as in the case of Hill et al. which posits that in addition to control and legitimacy, MNE ownership strategy is also fundamentally concerned with the choice between flexibility and commitment (Buckley & Casson, 1998; Chi & McGuire, 1996; Kouvelis, Axarloglou, & Sinha, 2001). More recent papers have taken again the same question.Li & Li in 2010 resuscit ated the topic and made a contribution by not only providing a theoretical background proposing similar hypothesis as in the case of Hill, Hwang and Kim in 1990 but also by analyzing the ownership structure and equity shares of over 5,000 new foreign investments in manufacturing industries in China during 2000 to 2006. Explaining the contents of the paper is outside of the objectives of this short essay, but the Li & Li? s took Hill et al style of theoretical constructions one step further and provided stronger empirical evidence (outside the realm of mall sample surveys) that supports the logic behind such framework. Empirical tests of MNEs' initial entry modes are rather limited, even though existing theoretical research has elaborated on the options features of JVs compared with other investment modes (Buckley & Casson, 1998; Chi, 2000; Lee, 2004; Pennings & Sleuwaegen, 2004). Cuypers and Martin (2010) observed that foreign investors are inclined to take a smaller equity share in a JV when they face strong exogenous uncertainty (e. g. , exchange rate uncertainty) rather than endogenous uncertainty (e. . , cultural uncertainty). Brouthers et al. (2008) showed that, in choosing international entry modes, MNEs tend to adopt JVs (over WOSs) under high demand uncertainty. Synthesis What are the major variables that affect the decision of entry mode? Given that different authors have considered variables like country risk, country familiarity, country development stage, technology, and transaction costs, Hill et al. begin their work with a vision to unify the framework and analyze how different factors affect the decision.The first attempt to create a unified framework was carried out by Anderson and Gatignon in 1986 through the use of transaction cost theory. I believe that the authors see the shortcoming of this initial unified proposal in the Ceteris Paribus assumption of Economics that is used only as a theoretical tool to analyze relations among events or va riables. Any theory that treats related events in isolation will be insufficient and that? s why the authors propose the strategic relationship as another vital element of the decision.Their proposal includes the following factors: !†#$%   ! â€Å"#$! ,! = ! (! â€Å"#$%†&, ! â€Å"#$%&'†   ! â€Å"##$%#&'%, ! â€Å"##$%†&'(â€Å")&   ! â€Å"#$#) Should they be weighted equally? Why yes or why no? Different factors in the decision often suggest different entry modes, it is according to the particular weights each company puts in this factors that the final choice of entry is done. In other words, when deciding entry mode different factors have different weights and according to each company’s strategic considerations, such weights will have different magnitudes.Given that different variables may pull the MNC in the different directions, what approach is suggested by the authors? The authors suggest that instead of focusing in a single var iable, the company will have a set of strategic constraints that will limit their decision options. They focus their attention on how much control the company wants, according to the resource commitment they will provide and taking into consideration the dissemination risks of their knowhow. This can be formulated as the following: ! â€Å"#$%   ! â€Å"#$! ,! = ! !†#$%†&, ! #$%&'†   ! â€Å"##$%#&'%, ! â€Å"##$%†&'(â€Å")&   ! â€Å"#$# !†#$†%&'(   ! â€Å"#$†%&'( = ! !†#$%! â€Å"&   ! â€Å"##$%$&'$(, ! â€Å"#$%   ! †   ! â€Å"#$#%&! ‘, ! â€Å"#$%†   ! â€Å"#! $%&'%(â€Å"# !†#$%&†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ(â€Å")*+   ! â€Å"#$†%&'( = ! !†#$%&'   ! â€Å"#$, ! â€Å"#$%&†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ   ! â€Å"#$%$†&$'(, ! â€Å"#$%! !†#$%&%†#', ! â€Å"#$%&#&%'   ! †   ! â€Å"#$%&'&'†( !†#$%#&'()$   ! â€Å"#! â€Å"#$%& = ! (! à ¢â‚¬Å"#$%   ! †   ! â€Å"#$ ? !†#$%&%$   ! â€Å"#$ ? ?! â€Å", ! â€Å"#$! !†#$%&   ! †   ! â€Å"#$ ? ?! â€Å") These factors come from previous research and theoretical constructs. One important analysis that needs to be done is how these factors correlate to each other.One factor that I? m not sure if it? s included in any of these variables is regulation. For example, many automobile giants in the world wanted to enter the Chinese market as WOSs but because of regulation they are forced to enter as JVs. This makes me believe that there is an unspoken assumption that the markets the authors were conceiving in their constructs were open markets with little participation of the government (maybe they include it with country risk? ). What theories have been taken as the basis for conceptualization? This heoretical construct is a criticism to the Transaction Cost analysis to the entry mode decision, but in the words of Hwan, the theoretical heritage of the Eclectic Theory can be traced in part to the seminal work of Perlmutter [1969], which acknowledged the increasing existence of geocentric approaches to multinational management. The geocentric approach outlined by Perlmutter provided a succinct explanation for the existence of and benefits attached to managing subsidiary units not as a portfolio of independent units but as an interdependent network.Another foundation, upon which their argument rests, is the rich body of literature on global strategy (e. g. , Hout, Porter and Rudden [1982]; Hamel and Prahalad [1985]; Kogut [1985a, 1985b]; Kim and Mauborgne [1988]; Yip, [1989]), which has either explicitly or implicitly built upon Perlmutter's geocentric conception. I believe that the biggest theoretical difference from this global-strategy construct and classical economics theory within the entry mode decision is that the overriding objective is overall corporate success, not the maximization of each individual subsi diary unit's efficiency.The second is that in achieving this objective, interdependencies across subsidiary units must be actively managed, meaning that sometimes it would mean that in order to maintain global strategy, some SBUs might even be required to operate at a loss (which is a rationale outside the boundaries of traditional economics). Considering the nine propositions, do they all make sense to you? In case you find any fault with them, state it with your arguments. The first thing I noticed is why are they called propositions instead of Hypothesis? Any theory is based in hypothesis because its aim is to provide chances for something to be proved or not.The second thing I notices is that the propositions are not â€Å"symmetrical†. By this I mean that when you make such kind of propositions, in order to fully understand the relationship of the explanatory variables with the dependent variable, the author must not only look at one side of the coin but at both. For exa mple, Proposition 1: Other things being equal, firms that pursue a multi-domestic strategy will favor lowcontrol entry modes. That is one side of the coin, the other side would be: Other things being equal, firms that do not pursue multi-domestic strategy will not favor low-control entry modes.The value of such construct is that it gives a more robust base for empirical testing. Each proposition is set to analyze the validity of each factor within the whole unified framework, so its validity remains to be tested empirically. Review the methodology adopted by this paper and make your comment on its appropriateness. This paper is a theoretical construct based upon the works of others with the addition of new factors, it does not apply specific methodological tools for testing its validity. In terms of epistemological value, the theory is constructed in the same fashion as Falsificationism (Popper? ) would propose because the validity of the theory that was accepted previously was put into question by the authors and therefore they provided a new set of hypothesis that should accommodate more accurately to reality than Transaction Costs theory. To discuss the appropriateness of such construct without empirical evidence would be to begin an epistemological debate about the validity of theories and their validity into describing â€Å"Truth†. If it were me who wrote the paper I would have not done a theoretical construct without any experimental study about its validity. I believe that? why some of the authors (specifically Hwan) wrote another paper a couple of years later were with the use of surveys they tried to analyze the validity of such constructs. Methodologically speaking, I believe that is a much more fruitful contribution to science than providing list of propositions that may or may not be of use. Discuss briefly what contributions this thesis has made to the theory of international entry mode choice. The biggest contribution of this paper was th e search of different factors that could explain the decision of mode of entry for the internationalization process of a company.Previous studies at the moment had already identified a diversity of variables that influence the entry mode decision decision, and the authors grouped them into one of two categories: environmental or transaction specific factors. Furthermore, according to the theoretical constructs of the time, the studies of the factors had an underlying assumption that each entry decision is made in isolation and is driven essentially by efficiency considerations at the level of the individual entrant or subsidiary unit.This paper made a case directed towards establishing the importance of a third group of factors: global strategic, namely the strategic relationship it envisages between its operations across borders, in reaching its entry mode decision. For a business manager who is in such internationalization process, this theoretical construct can provide him a road map to which variables he/she should pay attention to in order to make the decision of entry.In my opinion, managers tend to first see how other companies enter the market in their initial stages and see if that would be a viable choice and such â€Å"contextual† approach is not included in the factors. What do you think of the limitation of this thesis? The biggest limitation of any theoretical construct is that it remains just a theory and not be applicable. That? s why I took it upon me to see if someone had tried to prove or deny the Eclectic Theory. The results of that search are shown in section three of this paper.Empirical evidence 2 years after the publication of Hill et al. Eclectic Theory, one of the co-writers, Peter Hwang along with W. Chan Kim published the paper: â€Å"Global Strategy and Multinationals? Entry Mode Choice†. The main objective of the paper was to provide empirical tests to the propositions made by the Eclectic Theory. They used a survey f rom ninety-six multinational managers and had a fundamental result that an express incorporation of global strategic variables into an analysis of the entry mode decision is warranted. DataThe survey was a mail questionnaire composed of four parts: modes of entry, global strategic factors, environmental factors, and transaction-specific factors. It was distributed to 629 U. S. based MNE, mostly from the manufacturing sector and targeted senior-level management. 137 questionnaires were returned (22% response rate), of which 41 were disregarded because of incomplete answers. Another 18 were disregarded because respondents provided a positive response to the control question of whether government regulations imposed restrictions on the mode options available.The respondents operations were geographically wide with 25 located in Asia Pacific, 17 in South America, 25 in Europe, 16 in North America, 4 in Africa and 9 in the Middle East. One big methodological problem to measure the validi ty of the propositions is that such variables are not easy to measure. This translates that the nine key variables recognized to influence the focal decision of foreign entry mode are linked to the empirical world only through indicators.Moreover, they appear to be wide-ranging, multifaced constructs. As such, psychometric measurement based on multiple items rather than a single-item proxy seemed a more fitting approach [Peter 1979; Fomnell 1982; Churchill 1979], and was used in the analyses. I personally believe that psychometric variables do not fully reflect the necessary information, but that is just because I am biased towards more robust statistical data and believe that what people think they know is not actually what they know.Continuing with the questionnaire, the respondents were asked to evaluate the foreign venture under discussion across each of these items on a 7-point Likert-type scale. After data collection, an iterative procedure was employed to refine the set of in dicators for each construct. The item-to-total correlation, i. e. , the correlation between the score of each indicator and the total score of those indicators used to capture each construct, was then examined. Following the steps suggested by Nunnally [1978], those indicators with a low correlation with the total score (i. e. , r

Music Therapy Essay

Music therapy is the use of music by health care professionals to promote healing and enhance quality of life for their patients. Music therapy may be used to encourage emotional expression, promote social interaction, relieve symptoms, and for other purposes. Music therapists may use active or passive methods with patients, depending on the individual patient’s needs and abilities. The idea of music as a healing influence which could affect health and behavior is as least as old as the writings of Aristotle and Plato. Native Americans and other indigenous groups have used music to enhance traditional healing practices for centuries. Traditional Chinese medicine practitioners have used music for healing. Traditional ragas (â€Å"melodic modes† used in classical music in India) have also been used to create different states of mind for healing. The 20th century profession formally began after World War I and World War II when community musicians of all types, both amateur and professional, went to Veterans hospitals around the country to play for the thousands of veterans suffering both physical and emotional trauma from the wars. The patients’ notable physical and emotional responses to music led the doctors and nurses to request the hiring of musicians by the hospitals. It was soon evident that the hospital musicians needed some prior training before entering the facility and so the demand grew for a college curriculum. A very brief historical glimpse of this fascinating profession follows, below. The earliest known reference to music therapy appeared in 1789 in an unsigned article in Columbian Magazine titled â€Å"Music Physically Considered.† In the early 1800s, writings on the therapeutic value of music appeared in two medical dissertations, the first published by Edwin Atlee (1804) and the second by Sam uel Mathews (1806). Atlee and Mathews were both students of Dr. Benjamin Rush, a physician and psychiatrist who was a strong proponent of using music to treat medical diseases. The 1800s also saw the first recorded music therapy intervention in an institutional setting (Blackwell’s Island in New York) as well as the first recorded systematic experiment in music therapy (Corning’s use of music to alter dream states during psychotherapy). Early associations with the interest in music therapy continued to gain support during the early 1900s leading to the formation of several  short-lived associations. In 1903, Eva Augusta Vescelius founded the National Society of Musical Therapeutics. In 1926, Isa Maud Ilsen founded the National Association for Music in Hospitals. And in 1941, Harriet Ayer Seymour founded the National Foundation of Music Therapy. Although these organizations contributed the first journals, books, and educational courses on music therapy, they unfortunately were not able to develop an organized clinical profession. In the 1940s, three persons began to emerge as innovators and key players in the development of music therapy as an organized clinical profession. Psychiatrist and music therapist Ira Altshuler, MD promoted music therapy in Michigan for three decades. Willem van de Wall pioneered the use of music therapy in state-funded facilities and wrote the first â€Å"how to† music therapy text, Music in Institutions (1936). E. Thayer Gaston, known as the â€Å"father of music therapy,† was instrumental in moving the profession forward in terms of an organizational and educational standpoint. The first music therapy college training programs were also created in the 1940s. Michigan State University established the first academic program in music therapy (1944) and other universities followed suit, including the University of Kansas, Chicago Musical College, College of the Pacific, and Alverno College. I was going to pick a few of these and talk about them but, all in all, music therapy helps so many people that I will talk about the overall outcome of what music therapy does for everyone I have listed: Children, adolescents, adults, and the elderly with mental health needs, developmental and learning disabilities, Alzheimer’s disease and other aging related conditions, substance abuse problems, brain injuries, physical disabilities, and acute and chronic pain, including mothers in labor, plus soldiers with PTSD. Scientific studies have shown the value of music therapy on the body, mind, and spirit of children and adults. Researchers have found that music therapy, when used with anti-nausea drugs for patients receiving high-dose chemotherapy, can help ease nausea and vomiting. A number of clinical trials have shown the benefit of music therapy for short-term pain, including pain from cancer. Some studies have suggested that music may help decrease the overall intensity of the patient’s experience of pain when used with pain-relieving drugs. Music therapy can also result in decreased need for pain medicine in some patients, although studies on this topic have shown  mixed results. In hospice patients, one study found that music therapy improved comfort, relaxation, and pain control. Another study found that quality of life improved in cancer patients who received music therapy, even as it declined in those who did not. No differences were seen in survival between the 2 groups. A more recent clinical trial looked at the effects of music during the course of several weeks of radiation treatments. The researchers found that while emotional distress (such as anxiety) seemed to be helped at the beginning of treatment, the patients reported that this effect gradually decreased. Music did not appear to help such symptoms as pain, fatigue, and depression over the long term. Other clinical trials have revealed a reduction in heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, insomnia, depression, and anxiety with music therapy. No one knows all the ways music can benefit the body, but studies have shown that music can affect brain waves, brain circulation, and stress hormones. These effects are usually seen during and shortly after the music therapy. Studies have shown that students who take music lessons have improved IQ levels, and show improvement in nonmusical abilities as well. Other studies have shown that listening to music composed by Mozart produces a short-term improvement in tasks that use spatial abilities. Studies of brain circulation have shown that people listening to Mozart have more activity in certain areas of the brain. This has been called the â€Å"Mozart effect.† Although the reasons for this effect are not completely clear, this kind of information supports the idea that music can be used in many helpful ways. Music affects people in ways that no other art or therapy can match; it distracts the mind, slows the body’s rhythms, alters moods, and influences behavior. It seems that music holds universal appeal and provides a bridge in a non-threatening setting between people and individuals within their environment. It facilitates relationships, learning, self-expression and communication. Music captures and helps maintain attention, it is highly-motivating and can be used as a natural â€Å"fortifier† for desired responses. Music therapy can enable people without verbal communication to communicate, participate and express themselves nonverbally. It also ass ists in the development of verbal communication, speech, and language skills. Music provides concrete, multi-layer/sensory stimulation, in visual, tactile, vestibular, and auditory. Researchers have shown that the power of rhythmic drumming helps  those with motor control illnesses, such as Parkinson’s disease. In that it uses regular tempo and rhythms to overcome their fast, slow and sometimes frozen moments. Using music in labor and delivery, helps the mother with improved abilities to walk and decreased pain in labor. In children fighting cancer exposed to singing showed an increase of the antibody IgA – a key component in stimulating immune system that helps the body fight the disease. For those with profound cognitive impairments, autism, and mental and physical disabilities, their brains respond more easily to music therapy than to speech. When in tachycardia, cardiac patients were able to reduce their heart rates to 50-60 beats per minute when listening to music that was exactly 50-60 beats a minute. Mentally handicapped children participating in music therapy programs has increased concentration, performance, self-control, and improved speech. For chronic pain patients, bringing into resonance the vibrations of pain with the vibrations of music alters the psychological perception of pain – even altering the pain or eliminating it. Increasing brainwaves has proven effective for people with ADHD and ADD, and various other learning disabilities. Slowing down the brainwaves has shown to help patients get to sleep, relax, find passion and happiness. The ability of music to change our mood seems to be related to the production of different chemicals in the brain. Endorphins triggered by music listening and music-making provide a kind of natural pain relief, where dopamine leads to feelings of buoyancy, optimism, energy and power. Impacts are even more potent for group music-making, because shared, positive experiences also release oxytocin, a brain tool for building trust. In this way, musical relationships develop encouraging non-verbal and emotional expression and building self-esteem, motivation and confidence. Symposium organizer Gabe Turow, a visiting scholar at the time in Stanford’s Department of Music, compared the effects of music therapy to taking medication. â€Å"We may be sitting on one of the most widely available and cost effective therapeutic modalities that has ever existed†, he also stated â€Å"Systematically, this could be like taking a pill. Listening to music seems to be able to change brain functioning to the same extent as medications, in many circumstances.†

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The islm model-finance - Essay Example In the article Sir John constructed a diagram and a system of equations that represent the goods market and money market equilibrium conditions. Eventually this IS-LM model has become a famous framework for teaching, policy analysis and econometric modelling for both closed and open economies (Dimand 324). Mishkin points out that Keynes considers the total quantity demanded of an economy’s output (or aggregate output that is equivalent aggregate income) is the sum of four types of spending: (1) Consumer expenditure (C) – the total demand for consumer goods and services; (2) Planned investment spending (I) – the total planned spending by businesses on new physical capital (machines, computers, raw materials, factories, etc.); (3) Government spending (G) – the spending by all levels of government on goods and services (government workers, red tape, aircraft carriers, etc.); (4) Net exports (NX) – the net foreign spending on domestic goods and services, equal to exports minus imports (536). Aggregate demand (Yad), according to Keynes, is: Yad = C + I + G + NX and when the total quantity of output supplied (aggregate output produced) Y equals quantity of output demanded Yad: Y = Yad, so it is possible to say that equilibrium occurs in the economy (Mishki n 537). So, the Keynesian framework enables economists to analyse how aggregate output depends on changes in its constituents: autonomous consumer expenditure, planned investment spending, government spending, net exports and taxes as well. Hicks suggested his interpretation of the Keynesian model, taking into consideration three aggregate markets (money, capital and goods) (156). Hicks asserted that â€Å"in the short period the market of labour as well as price changes do not play a significant â€Å"active† role, so the model can be introduced as follows (Vercelli 4-5): where L is the aggregate demand for money (equal to

Legal and ethical issues in the business environment Coursework

Legal and ethical issues in the business environment - Coursework Example Legal and ethical issues in the business environment The growing complexity in the business world has brought forward a serious problem that is growing at a rapid rate among numerous working individuals. The issue that is the primary focus of this paper is drug and alcohol abuse at workplace. In the light of current business scenario, use of drug and alcohol is growing steadily and can take the shape of a serious issue at workplace in the near future. Drugs and alcohol not only have negative impact on health of individuals who consume it but can prove hazardous for others present in the surrounding environment of the particular individual (Lowinson, 2005; Ghodse, 2005). Workplace problems are posed by consumption of illegal drugs as well as by misuse of legal prescription drugs and alcohol. It has been found in recent studies that legal drugs that have been prescribed by doctors can have strong impact on a person’s working capabilities such as level of concentration and alertness. Additionally, numerous individuals were also found to be heavily dependent on certain drugs for living a normal life and cannot function without the same. Consumption of alcohol and drugs socially may not have direct effect on the performance of an individual, however, if an individual attend work under the influence of these substances, it may result in adversity in terms of performance and productivity (Lowinson, 2005).

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Aggregate Demand and Supply Models Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Aggregate Demand and Supply Models - Essay Example 65) explained that the aggregate demand is pertaining to the value or amount of money in which the business entrepreneurs are expected to receive out of selling their products and services whereas the aggregate supply is pertaining to the value or amount of money that the business entrepreneurs should receive from selling their products and services. It means that the aggregate demand and supply represents the aggregate expenditure and aggregate production cost respectively. Under the Keynesian model perspective, the aggregate demand is pertaining to the â€Å"aggregate demand expenditures† whereas the aggregate supply is pertaining to the â€Å"total value of the output† (Jain, 2007, p. 66). Specifically the recently reported decrease in the U.S. consumer income has a significant impact in the movements of the aggregate supply and demand. Since there is a significant decrease in the U.S. consumer income, the business entrepreneurs are more hesitant to put in more investment. For this reason, there is a strong tendency wherein the aggregate supply curve would decrease. This partly explains why the aggregate demand curve would also decrease. As a result, the unemployment rate in U.S. is currently high. demand. Under the Obama administration, part of the fiscal policies include the extending a portion of the government collected taxes to unemployment insurance and Medicaid. The problem with implementing such fiscal policies is that these type of economic stabilizers could only result to the increase of the federal spending while the government collected taxes continuous to decline (Lucking & Wilson, 2012). (See Figure I – Impact of Fiscal Policies on Federal, State, and Local Government Spending below) Under the Classical economic perspective, the market should be allowed to regulate on its own without the presence of government intervention. On the contrary, the Keynesian economic perspective strongly support the use of fiscal

People Resourcing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

People Resourcing - Essay Example Planning and better management of human resources is an issue that cannot be ignored in a country’s development strategies. Human resource planning is the critical evaluation as well as identification of labor requirements for planed projects to meet the social and economic targets in the society. The most efficient approach to good human resource planning starts with attaining information on a particular human resource function, the selection or recruitment of workers, training, motivations, work place diversity, and compensations when need rise. Human resource planning is indicated by sufficient man power, comprising of all categories of workers and diverse skill and talents. The workers should be available in specific locations and perform their duties when required. This discourse is about the importance of attaining labor market prevailing conditions before human resource planning. There is need to observe the labor market trends to correct the in balance between its dema nd and supply. Labor market can be categorized as either internal or external. Internal labor market refers to a pool of workers within a certain organization. It could also mean a mechanism through which employees are assigned to certain roles within the organization. The number of employees is determined by the human resource policy put in place like job security, investment levels, sophistication levels in the organization departments, and the business approach adopted. Available internal labor market information can assist the human resource planning team in greater ways (Pilbeam, 2010). Prior to annual recruitments, the company may decide to retain the existing workers and offer trainings to meet the current demands. The retained employees can be motivated further by developments, creation of better employment terms, and salary reviews. This would increase their productivity hence increase turn over to the company. This would be cheaper than hiring new employees who may require time to adjust to the company’s environment and working policies. Classical model of internal labor market is associated with sophisticated and structured pool of workers. Such employees have established experiences and complex technological skills that are ideal to the daily operations of a certain organizations’ department. Such pool of workers have limited interactions with the out side stake holders due to fears that they could be lured to join other organizations at higher salary hence they are motivated by annual incentives, job promotions, and securities so that they stick to their companies. Having full knowledge of such workers is a great deal to the human resource planning team to assist in their retention within the company. Having full knowledge of existing employees may determine who to be out sourced to external companies and generate more income to the company. A company may cut the annual expenses by reducing the existing labor. It will be wise for the human resource planning team to evaluate the existing employees before the retrenchment operations. It would be a great loss to the company to lose a vital team member due lack of internal labor market information. Internal labor market information is much easier and cheaper to be obtained than the external labor pool. External labor market represents the pool of workers available outside (externally) a certain organizations. The type of workers required by a firm is determined by

Big Drive Auto Scenario Essay Example for Free

Big Drive Auto Scenario Essay It is the dream of every organization to enter a new market and in the process realize its dreams. However, this dream becomes very difficult to achieve due to a number of factors among them entry barriers put in place by those companies that are already operating in those countries. According to Arthur, S. Sheffrin, M. , (2003), some common non-pricing barriers likely to affect a firm wishing to enter a new market are high advertising costs, government policies, customer loyalty, and cost advantage independent of scale and distributor agreements. It would therefore be recommendable for such a firm to enter into negotiations with the government of the country where it wants to venture and the other firms that are operating in the country. This way, the new company will be able to cut on the cost of production. The reason is that in the negotiations, the companies will be able to discuss and have a common pricing index that should apply to the new company. Even though the other old company will not pay any new prices, the new company will have its prices reduced substantially. This helps the new company to reduce on the cost of production thereby having more disposable income. It can use this disposable income to invest on new technology or to maximize on its production. (Arthur, S. Sheffrin, M. , 2003) Another recommendation would be for the new company to first form a joint venture with the other operating company in the new company. This way, the new company will be able to escape or rather to get over all the other non-pricing barriers such high advertising costs, customer loyalty and distribution agreement. Under the umbrella of the already operating company, the new company now in the joint venture will be able to penetrate the market and only after it has succeeded in establishing the market should it break and be on its own. Due to these barriers, we can present sales at the new company in the tables below taking a span of ten years. From the tables, it is clear that the business is moving all right up to the year 2002 when it suddenly goes down. This defines the time when the new company decides to break-off from the joint venture and be on its own. The business goes down as they are now running independently but it slowly regains momentum because they are familiar with the market. (Arthur, S. Sheffrin, M. , 2003)

Japanese Management System Essay Example for Free

Japanese Management System Essay Management Styles Corporation management is necessary for an institution to survive during times of change as it is the role of management to provide a plan of action, leadership and delegation of authority. Management structure ensures growth will be maintained for the organization and that the corporation will continue to function. Multiple styles of management are determined by who has the responsibility for the delegation of responsibility for decision-making as well as the degree of participation in the decision-making processes across the company. In general, management systems appear to be impacted upon by the aims of the corporation, the magnitude of the organization and the cultural context the organization operates within (Kim, pp. 538-39). Optimal management style is essential to a corporation as the style used will determine how the institutions processes are organized, as well as how efficiently employees will work cooperatively or in competition with each other. Work experiences such as employee cooperation, corporation leadership and employee loyalty to the company will be dependant on the style of management used by the corporation. As such, it is important for different nations to develop human resource management practices that reflect their local circumstances and socio-cultural, political and economic situations. For example, some Asian nations such as South Korea, Taiwan and Japan have adopted a HRM strategy that is grounded in Confucian values of respect for the family foremost, and an emphasis on obligations to the collective (Rowden, pp. 163-64). Japanese Management System Japan is a democratic nation and has a highly refined and formalized culture that is in many ways restrained. The work ethics of Japanese business appears to focus dealing with work pressures in ways that are remarkably different to those of western industries. This is due to the lifetime socialization of Japanese citizens to think in terms of the collective, and behaviours that resemble individualism are highly discouraged. One way to ensure that its people conform to the practice of â€Å"maintaining face† is by the use of ostracism to disengage the non-conforming individualist from the group. Hence, team work and cooperative practices are very salient within the Japanese society. Especially, employees work with a high commitment to their organization, and also display a commitment to the economic welfare of their nation. The Japanese legal system maintains the labour standards that currently exist, a principle one being lifetime employment. Although some employees would prefer a different system to lifetime employment, the ingrained cultural management means that the practice is likely to remain. In fact the government and industry work together most cooperatively. The overall aim of the nation and its industries appears to be steady and continuous growth rather than a focus on profits, shareholder interests are secondary, and investors appear to be content with making minimal profits as long as growth is the focus. The form of management appears to be quite paternal and authoritarian (Mroczkowski, pp. 21-22). Japan tends to be very authoritarian in management style, and so there is little dispersion of power sharing across the company. Redundancy does not seem to be a concern for employees, as lifetime employment ensures that they are receiving a wage at home or they are relegated to another part of the company. As part of lifetime employment the homes of employees may likely be owned by the corporation that they work for. Employees tend to go on leisure trips as a group. Many areas of employee’s lives are influenced by the corporation that they work with. This is one of the ways conformity is expected. There is an emphasis on a team-oriented approach to corporate running. This incorporates Common and consistent goals, Organizational commitment, Role clarity among team members, Team leadership, Mutual accountability with the team, Complementary knowledge and skills, Reinforcement of required behavioural competencies and shared rewards. It s expected that such approaches fulfil the familial and community need that there is a gap present in today’s society, and so the company can fulfil a basic human need. Kaizen   The Japanese style of management is clearly characteristic of its collectivist cultural background. Foremost, the most prominent characteristic of the Japanese corporation is that it is family like in quality. As such, the Japanese corporation can be described as an â€Å"entity† firm, in contrast to a â€Å"property† firm. As an entity, the corporation functions as an institution in that it is maintained across time and has an identity of its own, that is separate and non-dependant on the employees and managers who work within it. This system of corporate governance has existed by way of lifetime employment, seniority of wages and promotion, as well as enterprise-based unions. Lifetime employment is characterized by management being primarily of employees who have spent their entire career within the firm. In this way the seniority wage system could be utilized as a promotion process by way of seniority of age and on the job task ability. Performance merit remained and rivalry was highly dependant on ones ability to cooperate with others (Bamber, p. 303).    What Is The Japanese Management System? This segment sketches the chief management practices that are mostly agreed to have applied in Japan until now, at least in large corporations in the manufacturing sector. As we shall notice afterward, the system as illustrated here is currently experiencing significant amendments. Employment and Personnel Practices Amongst many prominent features of the Japanese management structure, one is the lifetime service. The expression is, however, something of a misnomer and is better expressed as enduring employment with a particular firm. In comparison with much western practice, large firms in Japan aim to sign up all their employees, both blue and white collar, directly from the learning system. Regular workers enter the firm at its minor levels and are then projected to keep with it for the rest of their operational lives. Though some movement between firms is bearable, this is generally restricted to immature employees at the start of their profession. Apart from this, there is an indulgent between employer and employee that to depart the firm amounts to a severe contravene of mutual commitment. This system is self-maintaining because large firms hardly ever enlist personnel from other corporations. Once the preliminary exploration phase is over, employees cannot leave without rigorously damaging their profession prospects. To westerners, life span employment seems perplexing, not least because it appears to restrain a firms capability to amend its employment costs in response to varying business surroundings. But the system is underpinned by the use of transitory workers who can be laid off as the need arises. Lifetime service is therefore far from worldwide in Japan, even in large manufacturing companies. Furthermore, women are expelled from the system. Some approximations have indicated that only 40 to 60% of those functioning in large firms and trading houses are covered by lifetime employment (Coad, pp. 314-16). New employees are given exhaustive technical guidance plus a more general orientation into the firms culture covering such subjects as its history and values. Additional training is offered during each step of the employees livelihood, and is anticipated to be taken very sincerely. For example, upgrading to better levels may depend on successful completion of the firms encouragement examinations. Job-rotation is another major trait of Japanese management approach and is not limited to ground levels and carries on all the way through an employees live of business. Besides rewards of job-security, pay and position, Japanese firms offer a broad range of safety benefits. These may consist of financial support with housing and schooling, medicinal facilities, free transportation and social conveniences. Retirement profits are, however, insufficient by western principles. As with life span employment, welfare necessities express the paternalistic relationship among employer and employee, although momentary workers are not permitted to obtain these benefits. They are also disqualified from membership of the organization union.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Finally, the Japanese policy to decision-making involves wide communication and discussion. Suggestions for change are disseminated within the organization and intricate attempts are made to secure agreement from the parties that are likely to be influenced. Ideas for enhancement to operating actions are encouraged from underneath and are considered at every stage until an agreement is completed (House, pp. 6-7). Taken collectively, practices such as lifetime service, constant teaching and job-rotation, seniority-based pay and sponsorship, wide-range welfare necessities, and agreement decision-making provide centre employees with employment sanctuary, non-stop upgrading in pay and status over a long period, extensive all-encompassing safety benefits, proficiency development through training, and a grade of contribution in decision-making. In return, employees are predicted to display full commitment to their job and to their company. Japanese Management in Japan The well-known advocates of learning from Japan be predisposed to assume that Japans employment and personnel practices and the Japanese management style were the foremost causes of the success of large firms, and hence of national success. Although Japans economy has been triumphant, its industry has not been uniformly so. Industrial and hi-tech competitiveness is one of the burning current issues in Japan. Japans dominance in manufacturing has been displayed chiefly in the mass-production and high-technology industries. This could signify that firms in less successful industries have not applied the employment and personnel practices of Japanese management in the way that those in flourishing industries have (Grein and Takada, pp. 19-20). But an alternative and more reasonable possibility is that these practices are less important to success than has been assumed. Conclusion Yet, the Japanese management system should not be conceptualized as if it is composed only by practices within firms. Japans system of alliance capitalism comprises commonly supportive networks of industrial and financial firms and relations with government which play a momentous role in the economys operation.   Theorists argued that Japans system is adjusting to new conditions but that its basic model of corporate governance, struggle and employment remains largely intact. So even if the personnel practices practiced by large Japanese firms are uniting with those of the Western States, Japans overall management system looks likely to retain its pre-eminent character. Works Cited Bamber, G. and Leggett, C. (2001), Changing employment relations in the Asia-  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Pacific Region, International Journal of Management, Vol. 22 No.4, pp. 303. Coad, A.F. (2002), Not everything is black and white for falling dominoes, Leadership and Organization Development Journal, Vol. 21 No.6, pp. 314-16. Grein, A.F. and Takada, H. (2001), Integration and responsiveness: marketing strategies of Japanese and European automobile manufacturers, Journal of International Marketing, Vol. 9 No.2, pp.19-20. House, R. (2002), Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories across the globe: an introduction to project GLOBE, Journal of World Business, Vol. 37 No.1, pp. 6-7. Kim, J. (2000), Perceptions of Japanese organizational culture, Journal of Managerial Culture, Vol. 15 No.6, pp. 538–39. Mroczkowski, T. and Hanaoka, M. (1998), The End of Japanese Management: How Soon? Human Resource Planning, Vol. 21 No. 3, pp. 21-22. Rowden, R.W. (2002), The strategic role of human resource management in developing a global corporate culture, International Journal of Management, Vol. 19 No. 2, pp.163-164.

Inhaled Salbutamol: Effects on the Body

Inhaled Salbutamol: Effects on the Body Introduction Salbutamol is a first-choice bronchodilator drug used in the acute treatment of asthma. Asthma is a chronic respiratory disease which causes recurrent reversible airway obstruction. An asthma attack is often triggered by an immediate hypersensitivity reaction that occurs in response to an inhaled allergen, causing acute bronchospasm in the lungs. Salbutamol treats the symptoms of asthma by reversing this bronchoconstriction. It acts as a ÃŽ ²-2-adrenoreceptor agonist, and when inhaled, it binds to beta-2-adrenoreceptors in the bronchial smooth muscle of the lungs, causing the muscle to relax. This leads to dilation of the bronchioles and improved airflow. Salbutamol has been shown to cause side effects such as tachycardia, muscle tremor, an increase in systolic blood pressure and a decrease in diastolic blood pressure. When salbutamol is absorbed into the bloodstream via the lungs, it can bind to ÃŽ ²-2-adrenoreceptors present on the heart and increase the heart rate. The stimulation of beta receptors also stimulates an increase in myocardial contractility which can increase pulse pressure. Salbutamol is usually administered by inhalation of aerosol, powder or nebulised solution, although it can also be administered intravenously. A metered-dose inhaler (MDI) is normally used for aerosol administration, which provides a standard dose of salbutamol. The spray from a MDI consists of rapidly moving propellant droplets, most of which impact in the mouth and throat where salbutamol absorption is poor, and only about 10% of the inhaled drug reaches the bronchioles. 2 This proportion may be further reduced by poor inhaler coordination since many patients fail ,3 to synchronise the firing of the aerosol with inhalation. With good coordination about 15% of the dose would be expected to reach the lungs.3 Using a spacer device has proved to raise deposition of salbutamol in the lungs to levels similar to or greater than those obtained from a correctly used metered dose inhaler. (Thorax 1984;39;935-941) The spacer is a large plastic container with a mouthpiece on one end and opening at other end where MDI is attached, and is most often used by young children and the elderly. The aim of this study was to determine the acute effects of inhaled salbutamol on heart rate, pulse pressure, and peak expiratory flow rate and to compare the efficacy of salbutamol delivered by metered-dose inhaler (MDI) with that of salbutamol delivered by metered-dose inhaler attached to a spacer (MDI-spacer). The efficacy of the two methods of salbutamol delivery were analysed by comparing the bronchodilator and cardiovascular effects of salbutamol in subjects taking the MDI and MDI-spacer. Materials and Methods 18 healthy subjects were studied with an age range of 18-35 (14 females and 4 males). Salbutamol (Ventolin ®) was supplied in pressurised, metered dose inhalers (MDI). The 18 subjects were divided randomly into three groups: placebo, MDI and MDI-spacer. Subjects in the placebo group used the placebo MDI inhaler which acted as the control. Subjects in the MDI group used the salbutamol MDI. To administer a standard dose of salbutamol, they exhaled fully, and then inhaled slowly through the opening just as the drug was released from the MDI, and then held their breath for 10 seconds. [manual]. Subjects in the MDI-spacer group used a salbutamol MDI with an attached spacer device. To inhale a single dose of salbutamol, the subjects attached the MDI to the end of the spacer, breathed in deeply through the mouthpiece and then held their breath for 10 seconds [Introduction to Exp Bio] .The standard dose released with each depression of the salbutamol MDI was 0.1mg. For each subject, control readings of heart rate, pulse pressure and peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR) were taken at 3 minute intervals for 12 minutes. At 12 minutes, two successive doses of the assigned inhaler were taken (2 x 0.1mg doses= 0.2mg), immediately after which the three variables were measured. This was repeated every 3 minutes until a total dose of 0.6mg salbutamol or placebo had been administered. Heart rate was measured manually using a stethoscope and stopwatch. Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and systolic blood pressure (SBP) were measured by using a sphyngomanometer and a stethoscope. [manual]. The pulse pressure was then calculated by subtracting the SBP from the DSB. The PEFR was measured using a Wright peak flow meter. Statistical analyses were performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), version 16.0. The data were assumed not to have a normal distribution, and the results obtained from the different groups were independent of each other. The non-paired, non-parametric Mann-Whitney-U test was therefore used to determine whether there were significant differences in any of the measured variables as a result of the salbutamol MDI, when compared to the placebo control. The test was also used to determine if there was a significant difference between the results of the MDI and MDI-spacer groups which would have been caused by the use of the spacer. For each subject, the overall change in a variable from the mean control value after a 0.6mg dose, was used to compare the results of subjects from different groups. Mann-Whitney-u test to compare results recorded for each group to see if the differences observed are significant at the 95% confidence level. A value of P

Developmental Profile :: Teaching Education

Developmental Profile Developmental Profile for Adolescents Physical Characteristics 1. Concerning boys in this period, in general the penis and scrotum get much larger, hair appears in the axillae and in the pubic area, the voice begins to deepen, and the spurt of height and weight begins. This period, for girls, is a time of rounding out and completing major changes in the secondary sex characteristics. For example, most have begun menstruation and the weight and height gains have slowed down (Babcock, 1967). 2. Puberty is set into action by the increase of the hormone testosterone in males and estrogen in females (Rathus, et al., 1986). 3. The primary sex characteristics enlarge and mature: in males--the testes, prostate gland, penis and seminal vesicles, in females--the ovaries, uterus and vagina (Papalia, et al., 1998). 4. Acne develops in some adolescents, due to the change in hormones, and can last well into adulthood (Edelman, et al., 1994). 5. Toward the end of puberty, menarche in girls and ejaculation in boys signals reproductive potential. Puberty that is early or late can be stressful, although the specifics depend on gender, personality, and culture (Berger, 1998). Intellectual Characteristics 1. According to Piaget, adolescents enter the highest level of cognitive development--formal operations--when they develop the capacity for abstract thought (Papalia, et al., 1998). 2. An adolescent may be adult in his ability to reason and vote, but he's more childish in his attitude toward sex and marriage (Babcock, 1967). 3. Adolescent egocentrism, along with feelings of uniqueness and invincibility, can cloud judgment, as well as make them extraordinarily self-absorbed (Berger, 1998). 4. The specific intellectual advancement of each teenager depends greatly on education. Each culture and each school emphasizes different subjects, values, and modes of thinking, a variation which makes some adolescents much more sophisticated in their thoughts and behavior than others (Berger, 1998). 5. Erickson's Theory of identity vs. identity confusion emerges. This is involves the adolescent determining his/her own sense of self or experience confusion about roles (Edelman, et al., 1994). Socio-Emotional (Behavioral) 1. Some young adolescent girls, more so than boys, are dealing with eating disorders such as Bulimia and Anorexia (Papalia, et al., 1998). 2. Sexual activity rises for a variety of reasons, such as, seeking affection, peer pressure, as a symbol of maturity, spontaneous experimentation, to feel close, and because it feels good (Edelman, et al., 1994). 3. Given the restrictions placed on adolescents, their yearning for independence, and a sex drive heightened by high levels of sex hormones, it is not surprising that many adolescents report frequent conflict with their families (Rathus, et al.

How Has Religion Affected History And Literature? :: essays research papers

â€Å"And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes and our sacred honor.† With these words, penned by the eminent political scientist Thomas Jefferson, the struggling colonies known as the United States proclaimed their independence from Great Britain and began an adventure that would develop this small nation into a world superpower. With this â€Å"firm reliance†, her people embraced the unknown future and set out to advance their country politically, economically, and socially. Now, over two centuries later, many would argue that this â€Å"Divine Providence† has been almost completely eradicated from society. Yet, despite these many claims, the fact remains that religion has played a vital role in American public life and, despite the â€Å"demoralization† of the United States that so many individuals cry out against, religion continues to be a basic cornerstone of American societal life. Over and over again, both the history and the literature of the United States of America have taught her people and the world that religion has and always will have an incalculable effect upon the society of the United States. Historically, many see the United States as a â€Å"Christian nation† founded on Christian principles by Christian men with Christian motives. Therefore, they will argue that this heritage should be continued in the U.S. today by allowing prayer in public schools, outlawing abortion, or giving religious organizations special privileges. However, a closer examination of American history reveals that although the United States was founded with many religious guidelines, America is not a specifically Christian nation. This having been said, it is important to recognize how religion has historically affected American society. A chief example of religion’s impact is found in the landmark Supreme Court ruling of 1962 in the case of Engel vs. Vitale in which organized prayer in the public school system was declared unconstitutional. Steven Engel, a Jewish man in New York, had visited his son’s classroom in the fall of 1958 and was offended when he observed the entire cl ass, including his son, with their hands clasped together and their heads bowed. Along with four other parents, Engel challenged the school board and its president, William Vitale, and, on June 25, 1962, the Supreme Court ruled 6-1 that organized prayer in public schools, regardless of whether they are a requirement or not, were unconstitutional and therefore must cease immediately.

Women: Their Freedom, And How They Got It :: Expository Essays Research Papers

Women: Their Freedom, And How They Got It The Light at the End of the Tunnel In the past, women have been oppressed to a point where they were treated as a completely different species. They were in a country that seemed to be a dark tunnel with no hope, dreams, or sense of fulfillment. Now, women have been given their natural birthrights, and they are now able to do everything males can do. As the United States of America was building, women for some reason were not treated like they should have been. Strong women like Sojourner Truth stood up for what they knew was right. She was able to fight for all women, represent a whole "race" and take control, she was one of the very few women who had the strength and will power to face this problem head on, and win. She was able to take on an entire nation and voice her opinion regardless of what her consequences could have been. That is what it takes to free yourself and or other people from the hold of injustice. Not too many people have the quality to be able to stand up in such harsh situations but because of some brave women all of the women are able to walk down the street and feel as equal as any man passing by. They can vote, hold office, get high paying jobs, and be independent women, with independent thoughts. In the lights of the horrible past, women were able to build a defense system far better than any army or navy that any country could produce. The women were able to attack with intelligence, perseverance, and being able to bring up common sense that seemed to have been missing before. With this defense, they were able to produce an illustrious history. Now, women can linger with their pasts, and with the memories of the women who preceded them, and look towards a bright future, where people like Eleanor Roosevelt and Hillary Rodham Clinton exemplify the American women, who can live out the American Dream, once only available to males. No longer do women write books depicting their insecurities and injustices. Now women are writers of Pulitzer Prize winning works and teach aspiring male authors how to be the best they can be. In a society where it was once unheard of for women to even be educated, women take up the majority of grade school teachers, and many more have blossomed into college professors with Ph D's and MD's.

Queen Elizabeth Essay

‘The Taming of the Shrew’, written by William Shakespeare between 1589 and 1594, is a romantic comedy set in the Italian city of Padua. Since the play was written, the audience’s idea of comedy has changed quite dramatically. In the fifteen hundreds, an audience would have enjoyed obvious, visual aspects of comedy such as we would see in a modern-day pantomime, whereas an audience watching the play today would also enjoy less obvious aspects such as sarcasm, irony and dry humour. Shakespeare, although aware of Queen Elizabeth’s position as a strong and independent woman, also had to fulfil the expectations of the time. This is why the ‘feminist’ of the play comes out ‘Tamed’ at the end. Women were expected to be obedient to men, whether husband, father or elder, in the same way as commoners were subservient to the King and aristocracy, a model of society often referred to as the Great Chain of Being. This hierarchy supported belief in the Divine Right of Kings and, similarly, in man’s superiority to woman. The fact that the play is set in Italy further strengthens the link with the Italian tradition of Commedia dell’Arte, one of the major influences on modern pantomime. The subject of ‘The Taming of the Shrew’ – who shall have sovereignty in marriage – is also part of a long and well established tradition in English literature offering many opportunities for comedy, for example Chaucer’s ‘Wife of Bath’s Tale’ and Noah’s wife in the Medieval Mystery Plays. The play is primarily about love and respect between husband and wife, though there are many other underlying themes: the relationship between master and servant, violence, and oppression, sexual compatibility, marriage and its materialistic assets, family, and the relationship between appearance and reality. As the title suggests, the play follows the struggles of Petruchio and Katherina in courtship and marriage; Petruchio takes on the challenge of marrying the famed ‘Shrew’, known in Padua for her scolding tongue and uninviting attitude, and by the end of the play manages to tame her. It sheds light on the belief of the time that women should be completely obedient toward their masters, and that Kate realizes she will get nowhere resisting men and relents to Petruchio’s authority.

Quantittative Research Essay

duodecimal question is very common in natural sciences. denary query is apply to verify or support a hypothesis that already exists. Being with come off of the clo countersink the affectionate organization appendd by a hypothesis in valued seek amongst versatiles rendered, may create feeling of insecurity. This is understand suitable since numerical explore on military man conduct has a more than clearly specify question agenda. Research is conducted through with(predicate) a cycle of phases. The methods applied to carry stunned quantative seek ar information analysis, which is unruffled through statistics.The nature of this type of vista is cognise as positivism be convey it strives to speciate the world it advise be unsounded in cardinal context. Quantitative interrogation drops a deductive approach, making predictions, and test hypothesis that perk up already been carried by. (Cooli slew, H. 1999) investigators of quantitative query work with numerical info by analysing numbers. Characteristics have to be vest in send off in nightspot for results to be accurate and reliable. Prior to conducting a explore, investigators have to state both hypotheses. The conterminous depute carried out prior to the search is to implement the procedure they be dismissal to use.Researchers have to provide statistical purposeful data and in club to do this they have to use large bountiful consumes of plurality. A quantifiable sample of cc people is an absolute minimum in align to carry out a reliable statistical analysis. The accuracy of the research is important t here(predicate)fore correct procedures atomic number 18 employed to collect data analysis. In quantitative research due to the nature, real types of methods are apply to conduct research. Quantitative research is d single through oppugn and observing. Researchers sack up manipulate definite part of the test when measuring the results.The methods are o f organized approach the four main types of research used in quantitative research are descriptive or sen cartridge clipnt research, correlational research, daily comparative research and observational research. (Bryman, A. 2004) Correlational research attempts to square off the kinships between two or more variables, experimental research attempts to look for an buzz off and effect between two or more variables. Correlational and group end studies look at existing data this is a non-experimental contemplate. The cause an effect here assess the relationship from one education that exists with an otherwise turn over which is the comparable.Whilst in insouciant comparative research the researcher has no control over the nonchalant compute or independent variable because it is analyze after the fact, this effect is also known as the dependent variable (D. V). observational research and casual comparative research looks at cause and effect relationship between two or more variables the difference between the two researches is that casual comparative research have no control whereas experimental research the researcher has control over the independent variable (I. V). (Bryman, A. 2004) A longitudinal sight was conducted looking for at behavioral patterns of gasconade fandoms.The good of this research was to analyse the behaviour of human formulateed by social facts. Longitudinal studies can be useful because they require the comparable group of participants over a certain thought as time passes. The survey examined showing the behavioural component of sport fandom attending games. The data was collected in consecutive seasons, the methodology of field of battle was to be reliable and in rate to do this they collected data between clubs. The good of this survey showed the piece of writing of the crowd, and their discernible behaviour.The benefit of victimization quantative methodology was to measure subject behaviour, and the different aspects in measuring the composition of the sports crowd. This mull can be replicated over again to compare the quantitative methodology. In this research the reliability and validity is determined more than a qualitative technique. Even though the survey showed the composition of the crowd and their overt behaviour, the methodology does not attempt to explain the primal assumptions of sport fandom. The individuals in the choose are regarded as a chasten of variables making them equivalent across persons and across situations. (www)Structure interviews usually carried out on randomly selected sample of people. In a structured interview the researcher has pre impersonate questions that a subject is required to root in a given way. unified interviews are conducted in a casual manner and may stupefy unrehearsed and realistic answers. The standard interviews can be generalised and applied to the entire population. sample of subjects can be difficult, and formal interviews c onducted in routine manner may not produce realistic answers. The British hatred Survey (B. C. S) carries out surveys of randomly selected sample of people questioned by structured interviews.In order to understand, the experience of crime and behaviour. (Bryman, A, 2004) In questionnaires and surveys the experiments can be studied on large sample of people. Researchers are able to ask questions to the highest degree feeling and behaviour in real situations, the method is cheap. The selected people can be generalised about the real world because they are chosen randomly. In the questionnaire and survey the negative aspect can be that people may not respond truthfully. It is difficult to pass water the cause an effect. Questions in surveys may not have been asked about variables.Also through surveys and questionnaires research is often collected which is manipulated. communitys responses are put in categories that might fit in order to make pick outing. (Coolican, H. 1999) As ch (1951) study was conducted to carry out if conformity took place. Asch (1951) did a perceptual test to measure conformity there were 36 confederates in the experiment, 20 trials took place. The study was carried out in a laboratory setting. In the experiment where a number of cigarettes who were confederates of the experiment. In the experiment the prats where told to give incorrect answers. instrumentalist found it hard in the perceptual test to identify which 3 lines was the same length has the standard line. In this study 74% of participants did agree with the stooges verdict and conformed. The mean average of conformity rate amongst participants was 32%. Many psychologists have criticised Aschs study because they feel the participants where young offenders on probation. The set of participants were under authority figures acting has their experimenters. The other criticism Asch has received was how could one concern the perceptual confinement to conformity in real life.Th e other factor that couldve unnatural conformity in the perceptual task was if there was one participant and one stooge, conformity wouldve been rather low than one stooge being present in the experiment possibility of conformity would be then higher. The higher the status of stooge the likelihood of conformity would be higher, than if the stooge is a fellow student. Other factors considered to solve different results would be if lines where relatively corresponding to the standard line then the task would effect the conformity rate. It was a time consuming study, because one participant was tried and true at a time.In this study the participants were misleaded because of the stooges. The usefulness of the stooges in this experiment was to provide a result whether conformity existed. Rosenow and Rosenthal (1977) kindle that around studies, researchers have clear expectations about what should happen in their research study this can affect on the outcome. In other words, to som e extent, researchers consider what they are expecting to find, simply because they are expected to find it. (Coolican, H. 1999) Research can sometimes produce ambiguous interpretations where studies have manipulated the independent variable. lustiness in experiments only exists if the true cause and effect relationship is identified. In experimental methods manipulation of one variable can take place in order to keep the other variables constant. Experiments take place to discover accurate and precise discoveries of relationships between variables. In order to rule out alternative confounding variables designs of experiments are conservatively thought. Therefore a validity of experiment carried out on a study should help researcher in prox to create and design better experiment. (Russel, J. 000) Researcher In quantitative research is a mere objective observer. In this research the researcher does not participate or influence what is being studied. This is the basic underlying as sumption of the method that guides this study. It is through this duration the types of data are collected. Experiments carried out in field studies are seen has reliable, because people pit and behave in an everyday context. On the other hand laboratory studies can be unreliable because variables are controlled, they are low in validity and artificial. Coolican, H. 1999) Researchers use quantitative research in order to find results from experiments. Experiments used in social science have to be do so that they are internally and outwardly valid. (www. uwa. com In conclusion it can be said that some researchers find that some experiments using quantitative method have limited usefulness because of the low impertinent validity for example of their inapplicability to the real world. On the other hand some researchers consider quantitative research can be statistically reliable.Some researchers find that studies in some cases are manipulated and the results are prejudice in the w ay they are measured. The design of the reliability on quantitative research can be from one creative thinker concept, product package if it is better than the alternative. Researchers using quantitative research see whether a particular population shares certain characteristics in common. Quantitative research is used in connection with statistical analysis and inductance of descriptions. Therefore it is seen appropriate to be used in research to measure both attitudes and behaviour.